莎士比亚的戏剧可以分为历史剧、悲剧、喜剧。莎士比亚的历史剧具有史诗的宏大规模，虽然讲的是英国过去的历史，却写出了文艺复兴时期的英国社会和当时人们所关心的问题，并具有鲜明的民族特点。代表作有《理查二世》、《亨利四世》、《理查三世》、《亨利六世》等。莎士比亚的悲剧创作不仅具有深刻的批判性质，而且在当时可能达到的程度上最真实地反映了现实。他创造了一系列令人难忘的艺术形象，他们体现着文艺复兴时期的巨人性格，也反映出作者的理想。
1590年到1600年是莎士比亚创作的早期，又称为历史剧、喜剧时期。这一时期莎士比亚人文主义思想和艺术风格渐渐形成。当时的英国正处于伊丽莎白女王统治的鼎盛时期，王权稳固统一，经济繁荣。莎士比亚对在现实社会中实现人文主义理想充满信心，作品洋溢着乐观明朗的色彩。这一时期，他写的历史剧包括《理查三世》（1592）、《亨利四世》（上下集）（1597—1598）和《 亨利五世》（1599）等9部。剧本的基本主题是拥护中央王权，谴责封建暴君和歌颂开明君主。比如，《亨利四世》展现的是国内局势动荡的画面，贵族们联合起来反叛国王，但叛乱最终被平息；王太子早先生活放荡，后来认识错误，在平定内乱中立下战功。剧作中，历史事实和艺术虚构达到高度统一。人物形象中以福斯塔夫最为生动，此人自私、懒惰、畏缩，却又机警、灵巧、乐观，令人忍俊不禁。
这一时期创作的喜剧包括诗意盎然的《仲夏夜之梦》（1596）、扬善惩恶的《威尼斯商人》（1597）、反映市民生活风俗的《温莎的风流娘儿们》（1598）、宣扬贞洁爱情的《无事生非》（1599）和歌颂爱情又探讨人性的《第十二夜》（1600）等10部。这些剧本基本主题是爱情、婚姻和友谊，带有浓郁的抒情色彩，表现了莎士比亚的人文主义生活理想。与此同时，他还写了《罗密欧与朱丽叶》（1595）等悲剧3部，作品虽然有哀怨的一面，但是基本精神与喜剧同。莎士比亚还写有长诗《维纳斯和阿多尼斯》（1592—1593）、《鲁克丽丝受辱记》（1593—1594）和154首十四行诗。
17世纪初，伊丽莎白女王与詹姆士一世政权交替，英国社会矛盾激化，社会丑恶日益暴露。这一时期，莎士比亚的思想和艺术走向成熟，人文主义理想同社会现实发生激烈碰撞。他痛感理想难以实现，创作由早期的赞美人文主义理想转变为对社会黑暗的揭露和批判。莎士比亚创作的第二时期（1601— 1607），又称悲剧时期。他写出了《哈姆莱特》（1601）、《奥瑟罗》（1604）、《李尔王》（1606）、《麦克白》（1606）和《雅典的泰门》（1607）等著名悲剧。《奥瑟罗》中出身贵族的苔丝狄蒙娜不顾父亲和社会的反对，与摩尔人奥瑟罗私下结婚，表现了反对种族偏见的主题，而导致他们悲剧的原因不仅是奥瑟罗的嫉妒，而且是以伊阿古为代表的邪恶势力的强大。奥瑟罗临死前的清醒，包含着人类理性的胜利。《李尔王》中展现的则是一个分崩离析的社会，李尔王因为自己的刚愎自用付出了生命的代价，也给国家和人民带来了巨大的灾难。主人公从具有绝对权威的封建君主变成了一无所有、无家可归的老人，人物命运和性格发生巨大的变化，这在莎士比亚的作品中最具特色。《麦克白》中，一位英雄人物由于内在的野心和外部的唆使，成为个人野心家和暴君。其悲剧意义在于，个人野心和利己主义可以毁灭一个原本并非邪恶的人物。总体而言，这些悲剧对封建贵族的腐朽衰败、利己主义的骇人听闻、金钱关系的罪恶和劳动人民的疾苦，作了深入的揭露；风格上，浪漫欢乐的气氛减少，忧郁悲愤的情调增加，形象更丰满，语言更纯熟。
1608年以后，莎士比亚进入创作的最后时期。这时的莎士比亚已看到人文主义的理想在现实社会中无法实现，便从写悲剧转而为写传奇剧，从揭露批判现实社会的黑暗转向写梦幻世界。因此，这一时期又称莎士比亚的传奇剧时期。这时期，他的作品往往通过神话式的幻想，借助超自然的力量来解决理想与现实之间的矛盾；作品贯串着宽恕、和解的精神，没有前期的欢乐，也没有中期的阴郁，而是充满美丽的生活幻想，浪漫情调浓郁。《暴风雨》（1611）最能代表这一时期的风格，被称为“用诗歌写的遗嘱”。此外，他还写有《辛白林》和《冬天的故事》等3部传奇剧和历史剧《亨利八世》。
William Shakespeare was surely the world's most performed and admired playwright. He was well known in his time, and like many artists his fame continues to grow after his death. His plays dealt with many controversial topics, from racism to witchcraft- perhaps adding to the appeal of his plays in general. Shakespeare led an amazing life for his time, a time when actors and actresses were looked down upon and discriminated. He helped to change this stereotype and altered the world perception of theatre forever. In this report, I will outline many areas of Shakespeare? life, including His birth, marriage and children, parents and family, education, as well as his death.
Birth and early years 1564
William Shakespeare the famous playwright was born in April, 1564 in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, about 100 miles northwest of London. According to the records of Stratford's Holy Trinity Church, he was baptized on April 26. It was customary to baptize infants within days of birth, and because Shakespeare died 52 years later on April 23, and-most significantly-since April 23 is St. George's day, the patron saint of England, it has become traditional to assign the birth day of England's most famous poet to April 23 ( Website). As with most sixteenth century births, the actual day was never officially recorded, but along with most remarkable men the power of myth and symmetry has proven irresistible, so April 23 it has become.
Parents and Family
Shakespeare's parents were John and Mary Shakespeare, who lived in Henley Street, in Stratford. John, the son of Richard Shakespeare, was a whittawer (a maker, worker, and seller of leather goods such as purses, belts and gloves) and a dealer in agricultural commodities. He was a solid, middle class citizen at the time of William's birth, and a man on the rise. He served in Stratford government successively as a member of the Council (1557), constable (1558), chamberlain (1561), alderman (1565), and finally high bailiff (1568)--the equivalent of town mayor. About 1577 John Shakespeare's fortunes began to decline for unknown reasons. There are records of some debts he may have had, but of course, none can be verified for certain. In 1586 he was replaced as alderman for shirking responsibilities, and in 1592 was reprimanded for not coming to church for fear of process of debt ( A Documentary).
Mary, the daughter of Robert Arden, had a total of eight children with John Shakespeare. William was the third child and the first son of the family.
Education
Records for the Stratford grammar school from the time Shakespeare would have attended have been lost, but attend he undoubtedly did since the school was built and maintained expressly for the purpose of educating the sons of prominent citizens. The sons of burgesses attended free (Study and research guide).
The curriculum commenced with the hornbook in order to learn the English alphabet, and thereafter was largely devoted to learning the Latin grammar. School began at dawn and proceeded most of the day, with breaks for meals, six days a week. How long Shakespeare attended the school is not known, but from his obvious mastery and love for the Latin authors, the grammar school must have at least begun the process that he later mastered.
No one knows how long Shakespeare remained at the Stratford Grammar School, but Nicholas Rowe reports that ?..the want of his assistance at Home, forc'd his Father to withdraw him from thence.?(Rowe, Some Account of the Life, [2]) (Website). Rowe's source was the actor Thomas Betterton, who made ? journey to Warwickshire on purpose to gather up what remains he could, of a name for which he had so great a veneration (Website).?We cannot be certain, but it would seem likely that William was apprenticed to his father's business in the usual way, perhaps some time around 1577 when John Shakespeare's fortunes seem to take a turn for the worse.
The other significant educational opportunity Elizabethans had was mandatory attendance at church, where they were exposed to either the Geneva Bible or the Bishops' Bible. Church attendance also brought them under the influence of The Book of Common Prayer, Foxe's Acts and Monuments, and homilies and preaching ( Study and research guide).
In any event, part of William's early education must be the ways of business he would have learned around his father's shop. Concerning this period, there is a legend reported in Aubrey's Brief Lives (Aubrey was a seventeenth century gentleman known as a gossip and raconteur--1681) that "...his father was a Butcher, & I have been told heretofore by some of the neighbors, that when he was a boy he exercised his father's Trade, but when he kill'd a Calfe, he would do it in a high style, & make a Speech (Study and research guide)." As unlikely as this behavior seems from someone who shows empathy for animals in his poetry the detail of having been apprenticed to his father may be correct.
Finally, as part of Shakespeare's early education and influences, the Warwickshire countryside cannot be ignored. The plays and poetry are full of images taken from nature, gardening, agricultural pursuits, and country folklore. For example, in Henry V we find this description of the land\
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Shakespeare’s Four Writing Periods
William Shakespeare altered his writing style significantly between his first play (1590-92) and his last (1613). For example, the Shakespeare style of 1590 was somewhat rigid in its adherence to established rules, though it did contain flashes of brilliance that astounded and delighted audiences. The style of the early 1600's, on the other hand, was more creative and free because Shakespeare had learned to listen more to his inner voice and less to the dictates of literary convention. In his later years–in particular when he wrote The Tempest–Shakespeare achieved a writing mastery that confirmed what earlier masterpieces such as Hamlet and King Lear suggested: that he was one of the greatest writers in history.
.......Scholars generally assign each of his plays to one of four periods, depending on the quality and maturity of the writing and characterization. Textbooks classify these as the Early Period, the Balanced Period, the Overflowing Period, and the Final Period. Not everyone agrees on which plays belong to which period. For example, some scholars place Hamlet in the Balanced Period while others place it in the Overflowing Period. Scholars also differ on the period to which The Merchant of Venice belongs. Some place it in the Early Period and others in the Balanced Period.
.......Such disagreement is understandable. After all, literature is not mathematics or physics. In King Lear, 2+2 may equal 7 or 9 in the mind of an old man wrecked by familial perfidy. And in Macbeth, darkness + nightfall may equal sunshine or dawn in the mind of a witch stewing "eye of newt and toe of frog, wool of bat and tongue of frog." The plays and characteristics of the four periods are as follows:
Early Period
Plays: Comedy of Errors, Henry VI Part I, Henry VI Part II, Henry VI Part III, King John, Love's Labour's Lost, Midsummer Night's Dream, Richard II, Richard III, Romeo and Juliet, Taming of the Shrew, Titus Andronicus, Two Gentlemen of Verona.
Style in General: Technically rigid; somewhat immature. The plots generally are well organized.
Characterization: Often superficial or shallow compared with the characterization in later plays. Romeo and Juliet, in which characterization is strong, is an exception.
Dialogue: Sometimes stilted, unnatural. Shakespeare tries hard–maybe too hard–to be consistent in the structure of his lines, making his words fit established conventions rather than making them express the mercurial, inner voice that guided him in later plays. Puns and other rhetorical devices abound, making the wording clever but not always profound. In Richard II, John of Gaunt makes puns even as he is dying. When the king asks how he is, Gaunt uses his name (the same as the adjective gaunt, meaning thin, bony and haggard) in a "punny" reply:
Oh, how that name befits my composition!
Old Gaunt indeed, and gaunt in being old,
With me grief hath kept a tedious fast,
And who abstains from meat that is not gaunt?
Balanced Period
Plays: All's Well That Ends Well, As You Like It, Hamlet*, Henry IV Part I, Henry IV Part II, Henry V, Julius Caesar, Measure for Measure*, Merchant of Venice*, Merry Wives of Windsor, Much Ado About Nothing, Othello*, Troilus and Cressida, Twelfth Night.
Style in General: Less technically rigid; more creative. The plots are generally well designed. Shakespeare demonstrates his range by writing outstanding works in three genres: comedy (As You Like It, Twelfth Night), tragedy (Hamlet, Julius Caesar) and history (Henry IV Part I, Henry V). In addition, he presents a highly tragic character, Shylock, in a comedy (The Merchant of Venice).
Characterization: Strong and rounded, reflecting deep insight into human nature. Among the magnificent character portrayals of this period are those of Hamlet, Macbeth, Shylock, Othello, Iago, and Brutus. In Henry IV Parts I and II, Shakespeare achieves a wonderful balance between the comic (represented by Sir John Falstaff) and the serious (represented by Hotspur and others).
Dialogue: A mixture of verse and prose. Shakespeare also uses the soliloquy as more than a device to disclose the direction of the plot, to present pretty poetry, or to deliver long-winded asides. In Hamlet, Macbeth, and Julius Caesar, for example, soliloquies plumb the depths of the characters' souls, revealing doubt, indecision, fear, and ambition. The "To be or not to be" soliloquy in Hamlet, perhaps the most famous passage in English literature, reveals all of these emotions:
.
Overflowing Period
Plays: King Lear, Antony and Cleopatra, Macbeth, Coriolanus, Timon of Athens
Style in General: Highly creative; bursting with insight. Shakespeare ignores many rules to allow his genius to "overflow." The plots of this period sometimes twist and turn, challenging the reader with their complexity.
Characterization: Superb, deeply insightful
Dialogue: Often highly suggestive of the speaker's state of mind and suffused with memorable metaphors, similes and other figures of speech. Many passages are in prose. The following prose passage in the storm scene in Act III, Scene IV, of King Lear reveals all of these characteristics. Lear is addressing Edgar in the presence of the Fool. After speaking the lines, Lear tears off his clothes.
Why, thou wert better in thy grave than to answer with thy uncovered body this extremity of the skies. Is man no more than this? Consider him well. Thou owest the worm no silk, the beast no hide, the sheep no wool, the cat no perfume. Ha! here's three on 's are sophisticated! Thou art the thing itself: unaccommodated man is no more but such a poor bare, forked animal as thou art. Off, off, you lendings! Come unbutton here.
The Fool then rejoins in prose with a surprising touch of humor and more of the same type of imagery:
Prithee, nuncle [Lear], be contented; 'tis a naughty night to swim in. Now a little fire in a wild field were like an old lecher's heart; a small spark, all the rest on 's body cold. Look, here comes a walking fire. [Gloucester enters with a torch.]
Final Period
Plays: Cymbeline, Henry VIII, Pericles, The Tempest, The Winter's Tale
Style in General: Masterly. Shakespeare has just the right mix of technical skill, creativity, and wisdom while exhibiting hope for flawed humanity. Shakespeare tends to prefer times and places far removed from Elizabethan England–as in The Tempest, Pericles, and Cymbeline–although Henry VIII is certainly an exception here.
Characterization: Several plays of this period–including Pericles, The Winter's Tale, and Cymbeline–introduce characters who suffer loss, then regain what they have lost. Superb, deeply insightful
Dialogue: Highly creative, with many memorable passages in both verse and prose. The following passages, the first in verse and the second in prose, are from The Tempest:
Ariel's Song, Act I, Scene II
.
Full fathom five thy father lies;
Of his bones are coral made;
Those are pearls that were his eyes:
Nothing of him that doth fade
But doth suffer a sea-change
Into something rich and strange.
Sea-nymphs hourly ring his knell
Prospero Speaking to Ferdinand and Miranda, Act IV, Scene I
.
Our revels now are ended. These our actors,
As I foretold you, were all spirits and
Are melted into air, into thin air:
And, like the baseless fabric of this vision,
The cloud-capp'd towers, the gorgeous palaces,
The solemn temples, the great globe itself,
Ye all which it inherit, shall dissolve
And, like this insubstantial pageant faded.
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